Everything about Maulana Azad totally explained
Abul Kalam Muhiyuddin Ahmed (
11 November 1888 –
22 February 1958) was a
Muslim scholar and a senior political leader of the
Indian independence movement. He was one of the most prominent Muslim leaders to support
Hindu-Muslim unity, opposing the
partition of India on communal lines. Following India's independence, he became the first
Minister of Education in the Indian government. He is commonly remembered as
Maulana Azad; he'd adopted
Azad (
Free) as his pen name.
As a young man, Azad composed poetry in
Urdu as well as treatises on religion and philosophy. He rose to prominence through his work as a journalist, publishing works critical of the
British Raj and espousing the causes of
Indian nationalism. Azad became a leader of the
Khilafat Movement during which he came into close contact with Indian leader
Mahatma Gandhi. Azad became an enthusiastic supporter of Gandhi's ideas of non-violent
civil disobedience, and worked actively to organise the
Non-cooperation movement in protest of the 1919
Rowlatt Acts. Azad committed himself to Gandhi's ideals, including promoting
Swadeshi (
Indigenous) products and the cause of
Swaraj (
Self-rule) for
India. He would become the youngest person to serve as the
President of the
Indian National Congress in 1923.
Azad was one of the main organisers of the
Dharasana Satyagraha in 1931, and emerged as one of the most important national leaders of the time, prominently leading the causes of Hindu-Muslim unity as well as espousing
secularism and
socialism. He served as Congress President from 1940 to 1945, during which the
Quit India rebellion was launched and Azad was imprisoned with the entire Congress leadership for three years. Azad became the most prominent Muslim opponent of the demand for a separate Muslim state of
Pakistan and served in the interim national government. Amidst communal turmoil following the partition of India, he worked for religious harmony. As India's Education Minister, Azad oversaw the establishment of a national education system with free primary education and modern institutions of higher education. He is also credited with the foundation of the
University Grants Commission, an important institution to supervise and advance the higher education in the nation.
Early life
Azad's family descended from a line of eminent
Ulama or scholars of Islam, hailing from
Herat in
Afghanistan and had settled in India during the reign of the
Mughal emperor Babur. His mother was of
Arab descent, the daughter of Shaikh Muhammad Zahir Watri and his father, Maulana Khairuddin was of ethnic
Pashtun origin. The family lived in the
Bengal region until Maulana Khairuddin left India during the
Indian rebellion of 1857 and settled in
Mecca, the holiest city in
Islam, where he met his wife. The family returned to
Kolkata (then Calcutta) in 1890 where his father earned a reputation as a learned Muslim scholar. Azad's mother died when he was 11 years old.
Azad was raised in an environment steeped in Islamic religion. He was given a traditional Islamic education, tutored at his home and in the neighbourhood
mosque by his father and later religious scholars. Azad mastered several languages, including
Urdu,
Persian,
Pashto,
Arabic, and
Hindi. He was also trained in the subjects of
mathematics,
philosophy,
world history and
science by reputed tutors hired by his family. An avid and determined student, Azad succeeded in completing the traditional course of study at the young age of sixteen, nine years ahead of his contemporaries. At the age of thirteen, he was married to a young Muslim girl, Zuleikha Begum. Azad was, more closer, a follower of the
Deobandi school and compiled many treatises reinterpreting the
Qur'an, the
Hadith, and the principles of
Fiqh and
Kalam.
A young man, Azad was also exposed to the modern intellectual life of Kolkata, the then capital of British-ruled India and the centre of cultural and political life. He began to doubt the traditional ways of his father and secretly diversified his studies. Azad learned
English through intensive personal study and began learning
Western philosophy, history and contemporary politics by reading advanced books and modern periodicals. Azad grew disillusioned with Islamic teachings and was inspired by the modern views of Muslim educationalist
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, who had promoted
rationalism. Increasingly doubtful of religious
dogma, Azad entered a period of self-described "
atheism" and "sinfulness" that lasted for almost a decade.
Revolutionary and journalist
Azad developed political views considered radical for most Muslims of the time and became a full-fledged Indian nationalist. He fiercely criticised the British for racial discrimination and ignoring the needs of common people across India. He also criticised Muslim politicians for focusing on communal issues before the national interest and rejected the
All India Muslim League's communal separatism. Azad developed curiosity and interest in the
pan-Islamic doctrines of
Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and visited
Afghanistan,
Iraq,
Egypt,
Syria and
Turkey. But his views changed considerably when he met revolutionary activists in
Iraq and was influence by their fervent
anti-imperialism and
nationalism. Against common Muslim opinion of the time, Azad opposed the
partition of Bengal in 1905 and became increasingly active in
revolutionary activities, to which he was introduced by the prominent Hindu revolutionaries
Sri Aurobindo and
Shyam Sundar Chakravarthy. Azad initially evoked surprise from other revolutionaries, whose cause had been opposed by most Muslims, but Azad won their praise and confidence by working secretly to organise revolutionaries activities and meetings in Bengal,
Bihar and
Mumbai (then Bombay).
Azad's education had been shaped for him to become a cleric, but his rebellious nature and affinity for politics turned him towards journalism. He established an Urdu weekly newspaper in 1912 called
Al-Hilal and openly attacked British policies while exploring the challenges facing common people. Espousing the ideals of Indian nationalism, Azad's publications were aimed at encouraging young Muslims into fighting for independence and Hindu-Muslim unity. His work helped improve the relationship between Hindus and Muslims in Bengal, which had been soured by the controversy surrounding the partition of Bengal and the issue of separate
communal electorates.
With the onset of
World War I, the British stiffened censorship and restrictions on political activity. Azad's
Al-Hilal was consequently banned in 1914 under the
Press Act. Azad started a new journal, the
Al-Balagh, which increased its active support for nationalist causes and communal unity. In this period Azad also became active in his support for the
Khilafat agitation to protect the position of the
Sultan of
Ottoman Turkey, who was the
caliph for Muslims worldwide. The Sultan had sided against the British in the war and the continuity of his rule came under serious threat, causing distress amongst Muslim conservatives. Azad saw an opportunity to energise Indian Muslims and achieve major political and social reform through the struggle. With his popularity increasing across India, the government outlawed Azad's second publication under the
Defence of India Regulations Act and arrested him. The governments of the
Bombay Presidency,
United Provinces,
Punjab and
Delhi prohibited his entry into the provinces and Azad was moved to a jail in
Ranchi, where he was incarcerated until
January 1,
1920.
Non-cooperation
Upon his release, Azad returned to a political atmosphere charged with sentiments of outrage and rebellion against British rule. The Indian public had been angered by the passage of the
Rowlatt Acts in 1919, which severely restricted civil liberties and individual rights. Consequently, thousands of political activists had been arrested and many publications banned. The killing of unarmed civilians at
Jallianwala Bagh in
Amritsar on
April 13,
1919 had provoked intense outrage all over India, alienating most Indians, including long-time British supporters from the authorities. The Khilafat struggle had also peaked with the defeat of the
Ottoman Empire in
World War I and the raging
Turkish War of Independence, which had made the caliphate's position precarious. India's main political party, the Indian National Congress came under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi, who had aroused excitement all over India when he led the farmers of
Champaran and Kheda in a successful revolt against British authorities in 1918. Gandhi organised the people of the region and pioneered the art of
Satyagraha — combining mass civil disobedience with complete non-violence and self-reliance.
Taking charge of the Congress, Gandhi also reached out to support the Khilafat struggle, helping to bridge Hindu-Muslim political divides. Azad and the
Ali brothers warmly welcomed Congress support and began working together on a programme of
non-cooperation by asking all Indians to boycott British-run schools, colleges, courts, public services, the civil service, police and military. Non-violence and Hindu-Muslim unity were universally emphasized, while the boycott of foreign goods, especially clothes were organised. Azad joined the Congress and was also elected president of the
All India Khilafat Committee. Although Azad and other leaders were soon arrested, the movement drew out millions of people in peaceful processions, strikes and protests.
This period marked a transformation in Azad's own life. Along with fellow Khilafat leaders Dr.
Mukhtar Ahmad Ansari,
Hakim Ajmal Khan and others, Azad grew personally close to Gandhi and his philosophy. The three men founded the
Jamia Millia Islamia in Delhi as an institution of higher education managed entirely by Indians without any British support or control. Both Azad and Gandhi shared a deep passion for religion and Azad developed a close friendship with him. He adopted Gandhi's ideas by living simply, rejecting material possessions and pleasures. He began to spin his own clothes using
khadi on the
charkha, and began frequently living and participating in the
ashrams organised by Gandhi. Becoming deeply committed to
ahimsa (
non-violence) himself, Azad grew close to fellow nationalists like
Jawaharlal Nehru,
Chittaranjan Das and
Subhash Chandra Bose. He strongly criticised the continuing suspicion of the Congress amongst the Muslim intellectuals from the
Aligarh Muslim University and the Muslim League.
The rebellion began a sudden decline when with rising incidences of violence; a nationalist mob killed 22 policemen in
Chauri Chaura in 1922. Fearing degeneration into violence, Gandhi asked Indians to suspend the revolt and embarked on a
fast-unto-death to repent and encourage others to stop the rebellion. Although the movement stopped all over India, several Congress leaders and activists were disillusioned with Gandhi. The following year, the caliphate was overthrown by
Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the Ali brothers grew distant and critical of Gandhi and the Congress. Azad's close friend
Chittaranjan Das co-founded the
Swaraj Party, breaking from Gandhi's leadership. Despite the circumstances, Azad remained firmly committed to Gandhi's ideals and leadership. In 1923, he became the youngest man to be elected
Congress President. Azad led efforts to organise the
Flag Satyagraha in
Nagpur. Azad served as president of the 1924 Unity Conference in Delhi, using his position to work to re-unite the Swarajists and the Khilafat leaders under the common banner of the Congress. In the years following the movement, Azad travelled across India, working extensively to promote Gandhi's vision, education and social reform.
Congress leader
Azad had become an important national leader, and would serve on the
Congress Working Committee and in the offices of general secretary and president many times. The political environment in India re-energised in 1928 with nationalist outrage against the
Simon Commission appointed to propose constitutional reforms. The commission included no Indian members and didn't even consult Indian leaders and experts. In response, the Congress and other political parties appointed a commission under
Motilal Nehru to propose constitutional reforms from Indian opinions. In 1928, Azad endorsed the
Nehru Report, which was criticised by the Ali brothers and Muslim League politician
Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Azad endorsed the ending of separate
electorates based on religion, and called for an independent India to be committed to
secularism. At the 1928 Congress session in
Guwahati, Azad endorsed Gandhi's call for
dominion status for India within a year. If not granted, the Congress would adopt the goal of complete political independence for India. Despite his affinity for Gandhi, Azad also drew close to the young radical leaders Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhash Bose, who had criticised the delay in demanding full independence. Azad developed a close friendship with Nehru and began espousing
socialism as the means to fight inequality, poverty and other national challenges.
When Gandhi embarked on the
Dandi Salt March that inaugurated the
Salt Satyagraha in 1930, Azad organised and led the nationalist raid, albeit non-violent on the
Dharasana salt works in order to protest the salt tax and restriction of its production and sale. The biggest nationalist upheaval in a decade, Azad was imprisoned along with millions of people, and would frequently be jailed from 1930 to 1934 for long periods of time. Following the
Gandhi-Irwin Pact in 1934, Azad was amongst millions of political prisoners released. When elections were called under the
Government of India Act 1935, Azad was appointed to organise the Congress election campaign, raising funds, selecting candidates and organising volunteers and rallies across India. Azad had criticised the Act for including a high proportion of un-elected members in the central legislature, and didn't himself contest a seat. He again declined to contest elections in 1937, and helped head the party's efforts to organise elections and preserve coordination and unity amongst the Congress governments elected in different provinces.
At the 1936 Congress session in
Lucknow, Azad was drawn into a dispute with right-wing Congressmen
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr.
Rajendra Prasad and
Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari regarding the espousal of socialism as the Congress goal. Azad had backed the election of Nehru as Congress President, and supported the resolution endorsing socialism. In doing so, he aligned with Congress socialists like Nehru, Subhash Bose and
Jayaprakash Narayan. Azad also supported Nehru's re-election in 1937, at the consternation of many conservative Congressmen. Azad supported dialogue with Jinnah and the Muslim League between 1935 and 1937 over a Congress-League coalition and broader political cooperation. Less inclined to brand the League as obstructive, Azad nevertheless joined the Congress's vehement rejection of Jinnah's demand that the League be seen exclusively as the representative of Indian Muslims.
Quit India
In 1938, Azad served as an intermediary between the supporters of Gandhi and the Congress faction led by Congress President Subhash Bose, who criticised Gandhi for not launching another rebellion against the British and sought to move the Congress away from Gandhi's leadership. Azad stood by Gandhi with most other Congress leaders, but reluctantly endorsed the Congress's exit from the assemblies in 1939 following the inclusion of India in
World War II. Nationalists were infuriated that the viceroy had entered India into the war without consulting national leaders. Although willing to support the British effort in return for independence, Azad sided with Gandhi when the British ignored the Congress overtures. Azad's criticism of Jinnah and the League intensified as Jinnah called Congress rule in the provinces as "Hindu Raj," calling the resignation of the Congress ministries as a "
Day of Deliverance" for Muslims. Jinnah and the League's separatist agenda was gaining popular support amongst Muslims. Muslim religious and conservative leaders criticised Azad as being too close to the Congress and placing politics before faith. As the Muslim League adopted a resolution calling for a separate Muslim state in its session in
Lahore in 1940, Azad was elected Congress President in its session in
Ramgarh. Speaking vehemently against Jinnah's
Two-Nation Theory — the notion that Hindus and Muslims were distinct nations — Azad lambasted religious separatism and exhorted all Muslims to preserve a united India, as all Hindus and Muslims were Indians who shared deep bonds of brotherhood and nationhood. In his presidential address, Azad said:
"...Full eleven centuries have passed by since then. Islam has now as great a claim on the soil of India as Hinduism. If Hinduism has been the religion of the people here for several thousands of years Islam also has been their religion for a thousand years. Just as a Hindu can say with pride that he's an Indian and follows Hinduism, so also we can say with equal pride that we're Indians and follow Islam. I'll enlarge this orbit still further. The Indian Christian is equally entitled to say with pride that he's an Indian and is following a religion of India, namely Christianity."
In face of increasing popular disenchantment with the British across India, Gandhi and Patel advocated an all-out rebellion demanding immediate independence. The situation had grown precarious as the Japanese conquered Burma and approached India's borders, which left Indians insecure but resentful of the British inability to protect India. Azad was wary and skeptical of the idea, aware that India's Muslims were increasingly looking to Jinnah and had supported the war. Feeling that a struggle wouldn't force a British exit, Azad and Nehru warned that such a campaign would divide India and make the war situation even more precarious. Intensive and emotional debates took place between Azad, Nehru, Gandhi and Patel in the Congress Working Committee's meetings in May and June of 1942. In the end, Azad became convinced that decisive action in one form or another had to be taken, as the Congress had to provide leadership to India's people and would lose its standing if it did not.
Supporting the call for the British to "
Quit India," Azad began exhorting thousands of people in rallies across the nation to prepare for a definitive, all-out struggle. As Congress President, Azad travelled across India and met with local and provincial Congress leaders and grass-roots activists, delivering speeches and planning the rebellion. Despite their previous differences, Azad worked closely with Patel and Dr. Rajendra Prasad to make the rebellion as effective as possible. On
August 7,
1942 at the
Gowalia Tank in Mumbai, Congress President Azad inaugurated the struggle with a vociferous speech exhorting Indians into action. Just two days later, the British arrested Azad and the entire Congress leadership. While Gandhi was incarcerated at the
Aga Khan Palace in
Pune, Azad and the Congress Working Committee were imprisoned at a fort in
Ahmednagar, where they'd remain under isolation and intense security for nearly four years. Outside news and communication had been largely prohibited and completely censored. Although frustrated at their incarceration and isolation, Azad and his companions attested to feeling a deep satisfaction at having done their duty to their country and people.
Azad occupied the time playing
bridge and acting as the referee in
tennis matches played by his colleagues. In the afternoons, Azad began working on his classic Urdu work, the
Ghubhar-i-Khatir. Sharing daily chores, Azad also taught the Persian and Urdu languages, as well as Indian and world history to several of his companions. The leaders would generally avoid talking of politics, unwilling to cause any arguments that could exacerbate the pain of their imprisonment. However, each year on
January 26, the leaders would gather to remember their cause and pray together. Azad, Nehru and Patel would briefly speak about the nation and the future. Azad and Nehru proposed an initiative to forge an agreement with the British in 1943. Arguing that the rebellion had been mis-timed, Azad attempted to convince his colleagues that the Congress should agree to negotiate with the British and call for the suspension of disobedience if the British agreed to transfer power. Although his proposal was overwhelmingly rejected, Azad and a few others agreed that Gandhi and the Congress hadn't done enough. When they learnt of Gandhi holding talks with Jinnah in Mumbai in 1944, Azad criticised Gandhi's move as counter-productive and ill-advised.
Partition of India
With the end of the war, the British agreed to transfer power to Indian hands. All political prisoners were released in 1946 and Azad led the Congress in the elections for the new
Constituent Assembly of India, which would draft India's constitution. He headed the delegation to negotiate with the
British Cabinet Mission, in his sixth year as Congress President. While attacking Jinnah's demand for
Pakistan and the mission's proposal of
June 16,
1946 that envisaged the partition of India, Azad became a strong proponent of the mission's earlier proposal of
May 16. The proposal advocated a
federation with a weak central government and great autonomy for the provinces. Additionally, the proposal called for the "grouping" of provinces on religious lines, which would informally band together the Muslim-majority provinces. While Gandhi and others were suspicious of this clause, Azad argued that the Jinnah's demand for Pakistan would be buried and the concerns of the Muslim community would be assuaged.}} Under Azad and Patel's backing, the Working Committee approved the resolution against Gandhi's advice. Jawaharlal Nehru replaced Azad as Congress President and led the Congress into the interim government. Azad was appointed to head the Department of Education. However, Jinnah's
Direct Action Day agitation for Pakistan, launched on
August 16 sparked communal violence across India. Thousands of people were killed as Azad travelled across Bengal and Bihar to calm the tensions and heal relations between Muslims and Hindus. Despite Azad's call for Hindu-Muslim unity, Jinnah's popularity amongst Muslims soared and the League entered a coalition with the Congress in December, but continued to boycott the constituent assembly.
Azad had grown increasingly hostile to Jinnah, who had described him as the "Muslim
Lord Haw-Haw" and a "Congress Showboy." Despite being a learned scholar of Islam and a
Maulana, Azad had been assailed by Muslim religious leaders for his commitment to nationalism and secularism, which were deemed un-Islamic. Muslim League politicians accused Azad of allowing Muslims to be culturally and politically dominated by the Hindu community. Azad continued to proclaim his faith in Hindu-Muslim unity:
"I am proud of being an Indian. I'm part of the indivisible unity that's Indian nationality. I'm indispensable to this noble edifice and without me this splendid structure is incomplete. I'm an essential element, which has gone to build India. I can never surrender this claim."
Amidst more incidences of violence in early 1947, the Congress-League coalition struggled to function. The provinces of Bengal and
Punjab were to be partitioned on religious lines, and on
June 3,
1947 the British announced a proposal to partition India on religious lines, with the
princely states free to choose between either dominion. The proposal was hotly debated in the
All India Congress Committee, with Muslim leaders
Saifuddin Kitchlew,
Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and
Maulana Hasrat Mohani expressing fierce opposition. Azad privately discussed the proposal with Gandhi, Patel and Nehru, but despite his opposition was unable to deny the popularity of the League and the unworkability of any coalition with the League. Faced with the serious possibility of a
civil war, Azad abstained from voting on the resolution, remaining silent and not speaking throughout the AICC session, which ultimately approved the plan.
Leading India
India's partition and independence on
August 15,
1947 brought with it a scourge of violence that swept the Punjab, Bengal, Kolkata, Delhi and many other parts of India. Millions of Hindus and Sikhs fled the newly created Pakistan for India, and large caravans of Muslims left for
West Pakistan and
East Pakistan, created out of
East Bengal. Violence claimed the lives of an estimated one million people. Azad took up responsibility for the safety of Muslims in India, touring affected areas in Bengal, Bihar, Assam and the Punjab, guiding the organisation of refugee camps, supplies and security. Azad gave speeches to large crowds encouraging peace and calm in the border areas and encouraging Muslims across the country to remain in India and not fear for their safety and security. Focusing on bringing the capital of Delhi back to peace, Azad organised security and relief efforts, but was drawn into a dispute with the
Deputy Prime Minister and
Home Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel when he demanded the dismissal of Delhi's police commissioner, who was a
Sikh accused by Muslims of overlooking attacks and neglecting their safety. Patel argued that the commissioner wasn't biased, and if his dismissal was forced it would provoke anger amongst Hindus and Sikhs and divide the city police. In Cabinet meetings and discussions with Gandhi, Patel and Azad clashed over security issues in Delhi and Punjab, as well as the allocation of resources for relief and rehabilitation. Patel opposed Azad and Nehru's proposal to reserve the houses vacated by Muslims who had departed for Pakistan for Muslims in India displaced by the violence. Patel argued that a secular government couldn't offer preferential treatment for any religious community, while Azad remained anxious to assure the rehabilitation of Muslims in India.
Maulana Azad had been appointed India's first Minister for Education and served in the Constituent Assembly to draft India's
constitution. Azad's persuasion was instrumental in obtaining the approval of Muslim representatives to end the communal electorates, and was a forceful advocate of enshrining the principle of
secularism, religious freedom and equality for all Indians. He supported provisions for Muslim citizens to make avail of Muslim personal law in courts.
Azad remained a close confidante, supporter and advisor to Prime Minister Nehru, and played an important role in framing national policies. Azad masterminded the creation of national programmes of school and college construction and spreading the enrollment of children and young adults into schools, in order to promote universal primary education. Elected to the lower house of the
Indian Parliament, the
Lok Sabha in 1952 and again in 1957, Azad supported Nehru's socialist economic and industrial policies, as well as the advancing social rights and economic opportunities for women and underprivileged Indians. In 1956, he served as president of the
UNESCO General Conference held in Delhi. Azad spent the final years of his life focusing on writing his book
India Wins Freedom, an exhaustive account of India's freedom struggle and its leaders, which was published in 1957.
Criticism and legacy
During his life and in contemporary times, Maulana Azad has been criticised for not doing enough to prevent the partition of India. He was condemned by the advocates of Pakistan and by religious Muslims, especially of the
Deobandi order for his perceived affinity and proximity to Hindus. During and after partition, Azad was criticised for not doing enough for Muslim security and political rights in independent India. However, Azad is remembered as amongst the leading Indian nationalists of his time. His firm belief in Hindu-Muslim unity earned him the respect of the Hindu community and he still remains one of the most important symbols of communal harmony in modern India. His work for education and social upliftment in India made him an important influence in guiding India's economic and social development.
Maulana Azad is the namesake of many public institutions across India such as the
Maulana Azad Medical College in
New Delhi, the
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology in
Bhopal, the
Maulana Azad National Urdu University and the
Maulana Azad College in
Kolkata. He is celebrated as the one of the founders and greatest patrons of the Jamia Millia Islamia. Azad's tomb is located next to the
Jama Masjid in Delhi. In recent years great concern has been expressed by many in India over the poor maintenance of the tomb. On
November 16,
2005 the
Delhi High Court ordered that the tomb of Maulana Azad in New Delhi be renovated and restored as a major national monument. Azad's tomb is a major landmark and receives large numbers of visitors annually.
Azad was the "Mir-i- Karawan" (the caravan leader), said Nehru. That he wasn't. Though not detached from the humdrum of political life, he wasn't cut out to be an efficient political manager. He was comfortable being a biographer rather than a leader of a movement. He wasn't somebody who traversed the dusty political terrain to stir the masses into activism. That is why he settled for Gandhi's leadership, acted as one of his lieutenants during the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930-32, and steered the Congress ship through the high tide of the inter-War years.
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